The mysteries behind the extinction of dinosaurs: A voyage through time.

Introduction: The Jurassic World: 

                        The extinction of the dinosaurs remains a deep mystery. This historical voyage looks into the interesting subject of the dinosaur extinction, uncovering fascinating information and a wealth of archaeological evidence related to the mysterious extinction of these amazing species. 

Dinosaurs in Jurassic Period.

The Rise and Fall of the Dinosaurs:

During the Mesozoic Era, dinosaurs first appeared and ruled the earth for millions of years. They changed over time, becoming anything from the massive Brachiosaurus to the speedy Velociraptor. They evolved in many habitats throughout thousands of years, affecting the path of evolution. 

But disaster came at the end of the Jurassic Period, some 66 million years ago. A fatal extinction caused by a terrible disaster eliminated many other species in addition to dinosaurs. The change that occurred between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras was signalled by this event, which also cleared the way for the creation of mammals.

Theories of Extinction:

Among the many ideas that explain why dinosaurs became extinct, two have received a lot of attention.

Asteroid Impact: 

                            The most well-known idea suggests that Earth was struck by a huge asteroid or comet that caused widespread destruction. Massive amounts of energy would have been released by this impact, resulting in the destabilisation of the food chain, wildfires, tsunamis, and a nuclear winter-like state as dust and debris blanketed the sky and blocked sunlight.

Volcanic Activity: 

                            Another convincing argument argues that the extinction of dinosaurs was mostly caused by volcanic eruptions, especially those of the Deccan Traps in modern-day India. Large amounts of greenhouse gases would have been emitted during these eruptions, causing environmental disturbance and climate change.

                           Scientists are still deeply divided about the exact order of events and how they contributed to the extinction disasters.

Tyrannosaurus rex (T. rex) went extinct around 65 million years ago.

Curious Archaeological Finds:

Secrets into the past are provided by archaeological finds, such as fossilised bones and geological data that provide light on the mystery surrounding the demise of the dinosaurs.

 Chicxulub Crater: 

                              Buried beneath Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula, the Chicxulub crater is one of the most significant pieces of evidence in support of the asteroid impact idea. This massive crater, which is over 180 km in diameter and was discovered in the 1970s, is dated to around 66 million years ago, which matches with the period of the extinction disasters.

Fossil Record:

                            The record of fossils documents the wide range of dinosaur species that once roamed the earth, providing an understanding of life before to the extinction disasters. By analysing these fossils, one may learn more about the anatomy, behaviour, and ecological functions of these prehistoric beings and get insight into their environment.

Asteroid impact, Volcanic activity are the causes that how Dinosaurs are extinction.

Geochemical study: 

                                Exceptions related to asteroid impacts and volcanic activity in the late Cretaceous have been found by geochemical study of sediment layers. The trace elements and geochemical traces provide important hints regarding the environmental conditions and probably catastrophic events that led to the extinction disasters. 

Conclusion: Solving the Mystery:

Scientists are still fascinated by the mysterious surrounding the eventual extinction of dinosaurs, which motivates investigation and study. Although hypotheses such as volcanic activity and asteroid impact theories exist, the actual origin is still unknown. Each archaeological find that reveals more about Earth's past helps us to solve this puzzle and highlights the strength and danger of life on our planet... 

 

“All the explanations proposed seem to be only partly satisfactory. They range from massive climatic change to mammalian predation to the extinction of a plant with apparent laxative properties, in which case the dinosaurs died of constipation.” 

---CARL SAGAN. 

  

Particle Nature of light: Einstein's Explanation.

 Particle Nature of light: Einstein's Explanation.

Einstein extended Planck's quantum concept to explain the photoelectric effect in 1905. According to Einstein, the energy in light is not spread out over wavefronts but is concentrated in small packets or energy quanta. Therefore, light (or any other electromagnetic waves) of frequency v from any source can be considered as a stream of quanta and the energy of each light quantum is given by E=hv.
[1] 

He also proposed that a quantum of light has linear momentum and the magnitude of that linear momentum is p=h/c. The individual light quantum of definite energy and momentum can be associated with a particle. can behave as a particle and this is called photon. Therefore, photon is nothing but particle manifestation of light.

Light is made up of particles called Photons.

Characteristics of photons:

According to particle nature of light, photons are the basic constituents of any radiation and possess the following characteristic properties:

i) The photons of light of frequency v and wavelength & will have energy, given by E=hv= hc/λ

ii) The energy of a photon is determined by the frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity and the intensity has no relation with the energy of the individual photons in the beam.

iii) The photons travel with the speed of light and its momentum is given by hhv P=h/λ =hv/c

iv) Since photons are electrically neutral, they are unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.

v) When a photon interacts with matter (photon-electron collision), the total energy, total linear momentum and angular momentum are conserved. Since photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be produced in such interactions, the number of photons may not be conserved.... 

“Matter is Energy… Energy is Light…We are all Light Beings” —Albert Einstein.

  

Napoléon Bonaparte: Un voyage de victoire et de poursuite.

Les exploits extraordinaires et l'ascension rapide au pouvoir du grand homme politique et tacticien militaire Napoléon Bonaparte ont laissé une impression durable dans l'histoire. Napoléon, né en Corse le 15 août 1769, est sorti d'une relative obscurité pour devenir l'un des personnages les plus marquants de l'histoire européenne. Ce blog explorera l'étonnant récit de la vie de Napoléon, le suivant depuis son petit enfant corse jusqu'à l'empereur français. 

Le passé instable de la Corse et l'impact de ses ancêtres italiens ont façonné les premières années de Napoléon là-bas. Napoléon fut poussé à devenir un grand homme par la mort prématurée de son père et l'annexion de l'île à la France. À neuf ans, il se lance dans une aventure qui marquera sa vie : quitter la Corse et se rendre en France métropolitaine.

Napoléon Bonaparte.

Le succès futur de Napoléon fut pavé de sa formation militaire à l'Ecole Militaire de Paris. Même s'il était issu d'une éducation modeste, son génie et sa ruse le distinguaient immédiatement des autres. 

Napoléon a eu l’occasion idéale de gravir les échelons de l’establishment militaire et politique lors de la Révolution française de 1789. Ses compétences militaires ont été démontrées par ses victoires en Égypte et en Italie, qui lui ont valu non seulement une notoriété mais aussi une influence politique.

L'événement crucial s'est produit en 1799 lorsque Napoléon a mené un coup d'État, renversant le gouvernement français et assumant le poste de Premier Consul. Ce fut le début de la consolidation de son pouvoir, qui aboutit finalement à la déclaration de l'Empire français en 1804. 

Les exploits militaires de Napoléon sont légendaires. Il fut le plus grand tacticien et stratège de tous les temps, remportant à la fois la bataille d'Austerlitz et la conquête de la péninsule ibérique. Le génie administratif de Napoléon a été démontré par le Code Napoléon, un code juridique complet et la restructuration des gouvernements européens.

Cependant, avec la terrible invasion de la Russie en 1812, les choses ont commencé à changer. L'effondrement de Napoléon a commencé lorsque la Grande Armée a subi un coup dur en raison du rude hiver et des difficultés logistiques. 

La chute de Napoléon a commencé avec la bataille de Leipzig en 1813 et l'invasion de la France par la Sixième Coalition. Il abdiqua en 1814 et fut envoyé à l'île d'Elbe. Il réussit néanmoins sa fuite malheureuse et rentre en France au cours des Cent Jours de 1815.

Le destin de Napoléon fut scellé lors de la bataille cruciale de Waterloo, et il fut de nouveau emprisonné, cette fois sur l'île isolée de Sainte-Hélène, dans l'Atlantique Sud. Il y a vécu ses dernières années, en repensant à son incroyable voyage et à l'impact qu'il a laissé derrière lui. 

La vie de Napoléon Bonaparte est une histoire fascinante d'aspirations, de réussites et d'échecs éventuels. Son influence sur le développement de l’histoire européenne est immense et son héritage fait encore l’objet de recherches et de discussions aujourd’hui. Napoléon Bonaparte, critiqué pour son leadership autocratique et loué pour ses prouesses militaires, continue d'être un personnage important dans l'histoire de l'humanité et un symbole des difficultés liées à l'accès au pouvoir et au désir...

L'histoire est un ensemble de mensonges convenus.

History of Cinema: Beyond Screens.

Cinema is the most widely acclaimed means of entertainment in the world today. It is a combination of various equipments, techniques and art which constitutes cinema. But the most important things needed to experience cinema are camera, film reel and a projector. "Wheel of life' or 'zoopraxiscope' was the first machine to show animated pictures. It was patented in 1867 by William Lincoln. In a zoopraxiscope, moving photographs were watched through a slit. 

Zoopraxiscope

"The cinema is an invention without a future." - Louis Lumière. The Lumiere brothers-Auguste and Louise - are credited for inventing the first motion picture camera in the year, 1895. But even prior to Lumiere brothers, many others had made similar inventions. Lumiere brothers  invented a portable motion-picture camera, film processing unit and a projector called the Cinematographe. Here, three functions were covered in one invention. 

Lumiere Brothers

Cinematographe

The first footage shot by Lumiere brothers was that of workers leaving the Lumiere factory.

Cinematographe or Cinematography brought a revolutionary change in the world of cinema and made motion pictures popular. Though, prior in 1891, the Edison Company came up with a kinetoscope which allowed to watch cinema one person at a time, Edison's vitascope (1896) was the first commercially successful projector in USA. 

Kinetoscope

A camera shoots an activity on a film roll, also known as a film negative. This film negative is then edited. An editor removes away unnecessary scenes by cutting away that portion of the film role. Then the edited film roll is processed in a lab with required effects. The final film footage is then mounted on a projector. A projector is a device which projects the film running on the film roll on a blank white screen with the help of light. There are two pulleys on a projector. The film reel is mounted on the first projector and is run through the first to the second projector with the help of a motor. 

Advertising of Edson's  Vitascope

The film reel passes between a magnifying lens and a light bulb. The lens increases the size of the image on the blank white screen.

Cinematography is an art form unique to motion pictures. Although the exposing of images on light-sensitive elements dates back to the early 19th century, motion pictures demanded a new form of photography and new aesthetic techniques. In the infancy of motion pictures, the cinematographer was usually also the director and the person physically handling the camera. As the art form and technology evolved, a separation between the director and the camera operator emerged. With the advent of artificial lighting and faster (more light sensitive) film stocks, in addition to technological advancements in optics and new techniques such as colour film and widescreen, the technical aspects of cinematography necessitated a specialist in that area. 

It was a key during the silent movie era no sound apart from background music, no dialogue the films depended on lighting, acting and set. 

In 1919, in Hollywood, the new motion picture capital of the world, one of the first (and still existing) trade societies was formed: the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC), which stood to recognise the cinematographer's contribution to the art and science of motion picture making. 

Films are made up of a series of individual images called frames. When these images are shown rapidly in succession, a viewer has the illusion that motion is occurring. The viewer cannot see the flickering between frames due to an effect known as persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Viewers perceive motion due to a psychological effect called the beta movement. 

 

A Film Projector

CINEMA 4D is a 3D modelling, animation and rendering application developed by MAXON Computer GmbH of Friedrichsdorf, Germany. It is capable of procedural and polygonal/subd modelling, animating, lighting, texturing, rendering and common features found in 3d modelling applications.  

"IF A MILLION PEOPLE SEE MY MOVIE, I HOPE THEY SEE A MILLION DIFFERENT MOVIES."            ---QUENTIN TARANTINO--- 

QUENTIN TARANTINO. 

Story of X-Rays.

 X-rays, like the light are electromagnetic radiations and are not visible to the eye. Their wavelengths are smaller than those of the visible light. They are high energy rays. That is why they have high penetrating power. They can pass through the flesh of our body. They travel with the velocity of light. 

X-Rays image of the human hand.

These rays were discovered by Prof. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895. They are sometimes called 'Roentgen rays' also. They were called X-rays (X-means unknown) because these were not known earlier. For this wonderful discovery Prof. Roentgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize of Physics in 1901 .

Wavelength of the Electro-magnetic waves.

The apparatus used for producing X-rays is called 'X-rays tube'. This tube is made up of hard glass and is fitted with two electrodes which are connected to high voltage D.C. source. The electrode connected to the negative terminal is called cathode and the one connected to positive terminal is called anode. Low pressure is created inside the tube by pumping out air from it. When high voltage is applied between the electrodes, electrons emerge from the cathode and hit the 'anode' or the 'target'. As a result the X-rays come out of the tube. 

X-rays are very useful for us. They can pass through substances like wood, paper, skin, flesh etc. but are absorbed by bones, iron,lead etc. Doctors make use of X-rays to detect the dislocations and fractures of bones. They are also used to examine the diseases of lungs and presence of stones in kidneys and gall bladder. X-rays are allowed to fall on the body part to be examined and a photograph is taken on the photo film kept behind that part. In this film the portion of bones appears grey. From these X-ray photographs, the disease and defects are located easily. 

X-rays are also used in treating cancer. With the help of these rays, gold and other valuable gems hidden in the body are detected easily. They are also used to detect cracks and bubbles in the iron bars used for constructing bridges and buildings. They are used to study the structure of crystals. With these rays, it is very easy to distinguish between natural and synthetic diamonds.  

What are Infra-red Radiations?

We all know that the sunlight consists of all those colours which are seen in a rainbow. These colours are: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. Light from the sun travels in the form of waves which are known as electromagnetic waves. The different colours of light have different wavelengths. Our eyes are sensitive only to the wavelengths relating to the above seven colours. Apart from the wavelengths of these seven colours, the sunlight consists of radiations of other wavelengths also, but our eyes are not sensitive to them. Rays having wavelengths higher than that of red light are called infra-red rays and those lower than violet light are called ultraviolet rays. Both infra-red and ultraviolet rays are not visible to our eyes.

Spectral Lines.

Infra-red rays come not only from the sun but from every hot object. Burning wood and coal, electric heater-all produce these rays. These can be recorded on special type of photographic films made of infra-red sensitive materials. Whenever these rays fall on any material body they produce heat. They are very useful to us. 

Wavelength 

Wavelength of Infrared Radiation.

Infra-red radiations are being used for the treatment of several diseases. Special types of infra-red lamps are used for treating the pains of muscles and joints-especially for backpain. They are also used for heating rooms in winter.

Animals Pictures taken under IR Camera.

Infra-red radiations are being used for the guidance and control of missiles and other ballistic weapons. These radiations are also used for transmitting and receiving invisible signals. Molecular structures are studied with the help of these radiations. Impurities present in the materials can also be detected by these rays. 

Light, The Visible Reminder of Invisible Light ---John Green--- 

 Why Does Milk Appear in White Colour?  

Milk and curd looks white when we seen in the sunlight but they appears red in red light and blue in blue light. Have you ever wondered? Why its happens? If you don't know follow my blog page for more curious science thoughts. 

We all know that the sunlight is a mixture of seven colours. There are:  Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange & Red. The colours of the sun light can be separated with the help of a prism. The coloured an object depends upon the colour that reaches our eyes after reflection from the object. 

Colour of an objects depends upon the reflected light. 

 

What ever colour is reflected by the object, is the colour of the that object. The molecular structure of milk and curd is such that they do not absorb any of the colours of the sunlight but reflected all of them, Thus these substances appear white. When milk and curd are viewed in red light, they look red because red colour is reflected by them. The same argument holds good for the colours of the other objects also. 

Colors! What A Deep And Mysterious Language, The Language Of Dreams.   -Paul Gauguin. 

Discovery of Radium:

Radium is one the of the few elements that constantly emit invisible radiations. Such elements are called radioactive elements and the radiations they emits are called "radioactive" rays.

Radium Metal

 There are three types of radioactive rays-alpha, beta and gamma. Radium, due to the emission of the radioactive rays, disintegrates and finally gets converted into lead. Half of this radioactive element gets converted into lead in 1622 years. 

This is called the 'half life' of the radioactive element. In the next 1622 years, half of the remaining substance decays into lead. This process continues indefinitely. The radioactive rays are so powerful that they can pass through different kinds of substances including the human body. These rays are very useful in the treatment of cancer. Do you know who discovered radium?

Marie Curie 

All the credit of the discovery of radium goes to a married couple, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie. The story of its discovery is very interesting.

In 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. He found that the uranium emits a kind of invisible radiations which are even more powerful than the X-rays. Pierre Curie and Marie Curie, in 1898, also found that thorium also emits similar radiations. They also thought that pitchblende, which is the ore of uranium, must contain some other radioactive substance too. 

 They started refining pitchblende in order to obtain the new radioactive element. They had to work in a tin-shed because they could not afford a proper laboratory on account of limited means. Without caring for rains and storms, they worked day and night Finally, they succeeded in extracting 100 milligrams of radium from several tons of pitchblende. They found that this new element was much more powerful than uranium.

Pure radium is white in colour. It is quite heavy and thousands of times costlier than gold. The quantity of pure radium available in the world is very small. Radioactive rays are very harmful to the body. If handled carelessly its radioactive rays can wound the body. So be careful guys. 

"Nuclear Power Is One Hell Of A Way To Boil Water" - Albert Einstein.

The Cosmological Difficulties of Newton's Theory

There is a second fundamental difficulty attending classical celestial mechanics, which, was first discussed in detail by the Astronomer Seeliger. If we ponder over the question as to how the universe, considered as a whole, is to be regarded, the first answer that suggests itself to us is surely this: As regards space and time, the universe is infinite. There are stars everywhere, so that the density of matter, although very variable in detail, is nevertheless on the average everywhere the same. In other words: However far we might travel through space.  

This view is not in harmony with the theory of Newton. The latter theory rather requires that the universe should have a kind of centre in which the density of the stars is a maximum, and that as we proceed outwards from this centre the group density of the stars should diminish, until finally, at great distances, it is succeeded by an infinite region of emptiness. The stellar universe ought to be a finite island in the infinite ocean of space.   

According to the theory of Newton, the number of "lines of force" which come from infinity and terminate in a mass m is proportional to the mass m. If, on the average, the Mass density p° is constant throughout the universe, then a sphere of volume V will enclose the average man p°V. Thus the number of lines of force passing through the surface F of the sphere into its interior is proportional to p°V. For unit area of the surface of the sphere the number of lines of force which enters the sphere is thus proportional to p°V/ For to p°R. Hence the intensity of the field at the surface would ultimately become infinite with increasing radius R of the sphere, which is impossible. 

 

This conception is in itself not very satisfactory. It is still less satisfactory because it leads to the result that the light emitted by the stars and also individual stars of the stellar system are perpetually passing out into infinite space, never to return, and without ever again coming into interaction with other objects of nature. Such a finite material universe would be destined to become gradually but systematically impoverished.  

In order to escape this dilemma, Seeliger suggested a modification of Newton's law, in which he assumes that for great distances the force of attraction between two masses diminishes more rapidly than would result from the inverse square law. In this way it is possible for the mean density of matter to be constant everywhere, even to infinity, without infinitely large gravitational fields being produced. We thus free ourselves from the distasteful conception that the material universe ought to possess something of the nature of a centre. Of course we purchase our emancipation from the fundamental difficulties mentioned, at the cost of a modification and complication of Newton's law which has neither empirical nor theoretical foundation. We can imagine innumerable laws which would serve the same purpose, without our being able to state a reason why one of them is to be preferred to the others; for any one of these laws would be founded just as little on more general theoretical principles as is the low of Newton...    

" All Knowledge And Understanding Of The Universe Was No More Than Playing With Stones And Shells On The Seashore Of The Vast Impondérable Ocean Of Truth. "    

                                      — Isaac Newton.   

The Four Fundamental Forces in Physics.

 The Four Fundamental Forces in Physics.

There are four fundamental forces in physics:

They are Gravitational, Electromagnetic, Strong Nuclear and Weak Nuclear forces.

The Four Fundamental Forces in Physics.

Gravitational Force:

Gravitational force is a force between two masses and it is universal in nature. Our planets are bound to the sun through gravitational force of the sun. We are in the earth because of Earth's gravitational attraction on our body.

Electromagnetic Force:

Electromagnetic force is a force between two charges, and We are standing on the earth's surface because of the Electromagnetic force between atoms of the surface of the earth with atoms in our feet.

Strong Nuclear Force:

The force between two nucleons, there exists a strong nuclear force and this force is responsible for stability of nucleus. Strong Nuclear force holds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom. The atoms in our body are stable is due to strong nuclear force. 

Weak Nuclear Force:

Weak force is even shorter in the range than the strong nuclear force. During the fusion of hydrogen into helium in the sun, neutrinos and enormous radiations are produced through weak force.

" A Physicist is just an atom's way of looking itself " 

                   --Niels Bohr-- 

Rutherford's Alpha Particles Scattered with Scattering Angle

 Rutherford's Alpha Particles Scattered with Scattering Angle.

In 1911, Geiger and Marsden did the experiment based on the Rutherford's scattering alpha particles by gold foil.

A source of Alpha particles are kept inside a thick lead box with with a hole. The alpha particles coming through the hole made of lead box pass through another hole made on the lead screen. These particles are now allowed to fall on a thin gold foil and it is observed that the alpha particles passing through gold foil are scattered through different angles. A movable screen (from 0° to 180°) which is made up of zinc sulphide (ZnS) is kept on the other side of the gold foil to collect the scattered alpha particles. Whenever alpha particles strike the screen, a flash of light is observed which can be seen through a microscope. 

Rutherford's Alpha Particles Scattered with Scattering Angle 

Rutherford proposed an atom model based on the results of the alpha scattering experiment. In this experiment alpha particles were allowed to fall on the atoms of a metallic gold foil.

(a) Most of the alpha particles were un-deflected through the gold foil and went straight.

(b) Some of the alpha particles were deflected through a small angle.

(c) A few alpha particles (one in thousand) were deflected through the angle more than 90°.

(d) Very few alpha particles returned back (back scattered) - that is, deflected back by 180°.

" An alleged scientific discovery has no merit unless it can be explained to a barmaid. " 

                                          ---Ernest Rutherford--- 

Astronauts Living In Space.

 Astronauts Living In Space : 

A bed on the wall, baby wipes for a wash, footholds, and edible  toothpaste! Life on the space station is very different from life on earth.  

 

Life in Space Station. 

Ordinary Days :

                                             Astronauts need to do everything that you do. They eat, exercise, sleep, work, and play, but they have to do all these things in a home without the gravity

Astronaut Chris Hanfield in Space.

.      

New Arrivals :

                                          When astronauts arrive at a space station, they bring supplies with them. Imagine trying to unpack your suitcase when you are floating. some astronauts suffer temporary hearing problems after living on a space station, this is because the necessary air filters, fans, and pumps make it very noisy.          

Keeping Healthy :

                                                   Astronaut's muscles don't work very hard in micro gravity, so they quickly lose strength, so astronauts exercise for about two hours a day. This athlete completed a marathon on the International Space Station treadmill.  

     

Astronaut on Treadmill.

   

Time for Work :

                                             Experienced scientists regularly jion the astronauts in the space station to carry out a variety of experiments and record the results.  

 

Astronaut in space station.

A Tasty Food :

                                          Food is supplied in sealed packets and some of it is dehydrated. That means that water has to be added before the food can be eaten.   

 Nutritional Food for Astronauts. 

Time for Bed :

                                Most of the crew use sleeping bags, which have to be strapped to the walls of the space station. The bag holds astronauts' arms in place. Otherwise they would float above their head.   

Bed for Astronauts.

     

They like to keep clean, like us !

                                                                                         Astronauts use combs and toothbrushes, and toothpaste. But the toothpaste doesn't froth, and gets swallowed. Wet wipes are useful for a speedy wash...  

      

Bathing in Space.

Showering in Space Station.

" Building One Space Station For Everyone Was And Is Insane: We Should Have Built A Dozen. "  

                                                                    ---Larry Niven.---